Indigenous Foods of the North Atlantic: A Culinary Arc of Heritage

Welcome to this exploration of North Atlantic Foods and their traditional preservation methods. This resource represents a carefully researched sampling of Indigenous food systems that developed around the North Atlantic arc—from New England and the Canadian Maritimes to Greenland, Iceland, Scandinavia, and the Celtic Isles. As a holistic health practitioner, I find tremendous value in understanding these ancient food traditions that sustained our ancestors through challenging environments and seasonal scarcity.

The diversity of species presented here illustrates how our ancestors maintained nutritional adequacy through intimate relationships with their local ecosystems, adapting food practices to harsh northern climates through ingenious North Atlantic Food Preservation methods like smoking, drying, fermentation, and curing. Many of these traditional foods and preparation techniques offer nutritional benefits that modern science is only beginning to fully appreciate.

Cultural Connections Across the North Atlantic Arc

What makes the North Atlantic food traditions particularly compelling is how similar culinary practices developed in regions facing comparable environmental conditions. These connections were further reinforced through centuries of migration patterns.

The North Atlantic diaspora—primarily Norse and Celtic peoples—created enduring cultural bridges between these regions. Starting around 800 CE, Norse seafarers established settlements across the North Atlantic, bringing their food preservation techniques and dairy traditions to new shores. Similarly, Celtic migrations brought distinctive agricultural practices that adapted to new environments while maintaining core culinary approaches.

This cultural exchange intensified during the 17th-19th centuries when millions emigrated from Ireland, Scotland, and Scandinavia to North America, bringing traditional food knowledge that blended with Indigenous North American practices.

This compilation is not exhaustive but provides a window into the Indigenous food wisdom of the North Atlantic region—wisdom that can inform our own journey toward more sustainable and health-supporting food choices. Whether you are interested in historical food practices, seeking to reconnect with ancestral traditions, or simply exploring nutrient-dense natural food sources, these Indigenous foods offer valuable insights for modern holistic

New England and Canadian Maritimes

The Three Sisters: Specific Cultivars

Corn (Zea mays)

• Eastern Eight-Row Flint Corn (Zea mays var. indurata): Distinguished by its hard outer layer, shorter growing season (90-110 days), and cold-hardiness. Colors range from golden yellow to deep burgundy.

• Narragansett Flint: Developed by Narragansett peoples, featuring 8-12 rows of kernels and distinctive deep red-brown coloration.

• Abenaki Calais Flint: Multi-colored kernels with exceptional cold-hardiness, developed by the Abenaki nation.

• Wampanoag Flint: Shorter stalks (5-6 feet) with good resistance to northern diseases.

Beans (Phaseolus vulgaris)

• Skunk Bean: Black and white mottled seeds, known for excellent nitrogen-fixing properties.

• Mohawk Red Bread Bean: Deep red kidney-shaped beans, high in protein content.

• True Cranberry Bean: Not related to cranberries but named for the deep red color; a pole bean variety used by numerous Algonquian-speaking peoples.

• Abenaki Rose Bean: Pink-speckled seeds with robust vines that climbed corn stalks effectively.

Squash (Cucurbita spp.)

• Canada Crookneck (Cucurbita moschata): Long-keeping winter squash with a curved neck and tan skin.

• Algonquin Pumpkin (Cucurbita pepo): Smaller than modern pumpkins, with deeply ribbed, orange-red flesh.

• Hubbard Squash (Cucurbita maxima): Blue-grey, bumpy exterior with sweet, orange interior flesh.

• Long Pie Pumpkin: Developed by northeastern Indigenous peoples, looking more like a zucchini than a round pumpkin.

Other Cultivated Plants

Chenopodium berlandieri (Eastern Goosefoot): A semi-domesticated grain crop with small black seeds, high in protein, related to quinoa.

Hordeum pusillum (Little Barley): A native grass species cultivated by Indigenous peoples before European contact.

Iva annua (Marshelder/Sumpweed): Cultivated for its large, oil-rich seeds comparable to sunflower seeds in nutritional profile.

Helianthus annuus (Eastern Sunflower): Smaller-headed than modern varieties, but rich in oils and protein.

Wild-Gathered Plant Foods

Berries

• Vaccinium macrocarpon (American Cranberry): Gathered from acidic bogs and preserved through drying.

• Vaccinium angustifolium (Lowbush Blueberry): Managed through controlled burning by Indigenous peoples.

• Gaylussacia baccata (Black Huckleberry): Similar to blueberries but with larger seeds and distinctive resinous dots.

• Rubus occidentalis (Black Raspberry): Distinguishable from blackberries by the hollow core left when picked.

• Amelanchier canadensis (Shadbush/Serviceberry): Harvested in early summer, resembling blueberries but with a distinctive almond-like flavor.

Nuts

• Corylus americana (American Hazelnut): Smaller than European varieties, growing in thickets.

• Carya ovata (Shagbark Hickory): Identified by its shaggy bark and sweet nuts requiring significant processing.

• Juglans cinerea (Butternut): Related to walnuts, with oily, sweet kernels.

• Fagus grandifolia (American Beech): Triangular nuts harvested after fall frosts.

Roots and Tubers

• Apios americana (Groundnut): Protein-rich tubers growing in strings along underground stems.

• Sagittaria latifolia (Wapato/Duck Potato): Aquatic plant with starchy tubers harvested from pond and lake bottoms.

• Helianthus tuberosus (Jerusalem Artichoke): Sunflower relative producing knobby, starchy tubers.

Marine Resources

Fish

• Salmo salar (Atlantic Salmon): Harvested during seasonal runs in coastal rivers.

• Alosa sapidissima (American Shad): Spring-running fish caught in large numbers.

• Acipenser oxyrinchus (Atlantic Sturgeon): Massive fish reaching over 14 feet, traditionally smoked or dried.

Shellfish

• Crassostrea virginica (Eastern Oyster): Shell middens along coastlines demonstrate their dietary importance.

• Mercenaria mercenaria (Quahog/Hard Clam): Used for both food and wampum production.

• Mya arenaria (Soft-shell Clam): Harvested from tidal flats and often steam-cooked.

Greenland and Iceland

Greenland Indigenous Foods

Marine Mammals

• Phoca groenlandica (Harp Seal): Primary source of meat and oil for coastal Inuit.

• Erignathus barbatus (Bearded Seal): Valued for its large size and thick skin used for boot soles.

• Odobenus rosmarus (Walrus): Hunted for meat, blubber, and ivory.

Fish

• Salvelinus alpinus (Arctic Char): Distinguished by pink-red flesh and ability to survive in both fresh and saltwater.

• Boreogadus saida (Arctic Cod): Smaller than Atlantic cod with antifreeze proteins in blood.

• Reinhardtius hippoglossoides (Greenland Halibut): Deep-water flatfish with both eyes on the left side.

Plants

• Empetrum nigrum (Crowberry): Black berries with waxy coating, available into winter.

• Vaccinium uliginosum (Bog Blueberry): Distinguished from common blueberries by its lighter blue color and growth in boggy areas.

• Rhodiola rosea (Roseroot): Succulent plant with vitamin-rich leaves and roots.

• Oxyria digyna (Mountain Sorrel): Vitamin C-rich leaves used to prevent scurvy.

Icelandic Indigenous Foods

Marine Resources

• Gadus morhua (Atlantic Cod): Primary fish species for harðfiskur (wind-dried fish).

• Melanogrammus aeglefinus (Haddock): Often smoked or dried.

• Molva molva (Ling): Long, eel-like cod relative important in traditional diets.

Dairy Species

• Bos taurus (Norse/Icelandic Cattle): Smaller than modern breeds, adapted to harsh conditions and poor forage.

• Ovis aries (Icelandic Sheep): Dual-coated, primitive breed brought by Norse settlers.

Plants

• Angelica archangelica (Garden Angelica): All parts used - roots for medicine, stems eaten fresh, seeds for flavoring.

• Cochlearia officinalis (Scurvy Grass): Cruciferous plant rich in vitamin C.

• Rumex acetosa (Common Sorrel): Lemony-flavored leaves used in soups.

Scandinavia

Cultivated Plants

Cereals

• Hordeum vulgare (Six-row Barley): Archaeological evidence shows cultivation as early as 2500 BCE.

• Secale cereale (Rye): Became dominant grain in colder regions due to frost tolerance.

• Avena sativa (Oats): Late addition to Scandinavian agriculture, thriving in cool, wet conditions.

Root Vegetables

• Brassica rapa (Turnip): One of the earliest cultivated root vegetables in Northern Europe.

• Daucus carota subsp. sativus (Nordic Carrot Landraces): Shorter, hardier varieties than modern carrots.

Wild-Gathered Foods

Berries

• Vaccinium vitis-idaea (Lingonberry): Distinguished by its evergreen leaves and tart red berries.

• Rubus chamaemorus (Cloudberry): Amber-colored berries growing in boggy terrain.

• Vaccinium myrtillus (European Blueberry/Bilberry): Smaller than American blueberries with dark blue flesh.

Fungi

• Cantharellus cibarius (Chanterelle): Golden-yellow funnel-shaped mushrooms.

• Boletus edulis (Penny Bun/Porcini): Large brown-capped mushrooms with spongy underside.

• Lactarius deliciosus (Saffron Milk Cap): Orange mushroom that "bleeds" orange when cut.

Plants

• Allium ursinum (Ramsons/Wild Garlic): Broad-leaved wild relative of garlic.

• Urtica dioica (Stinging Nettle): Young leaves harvested for soups and as a vegetable.

• Taraxacum officinale (Dandelion): Entire plant utilized - roots, leaves, and flowers.

Marine Resources

Fish

• Clupea harengus (Atlantic Herring): Cornerstone of Nordic fishing culture.

• Gadus morhua (Atlantic Cod): Preserved through drying and salting.

• Salmo salar (Atlantic Salmon): Caught in coastal rivers and fjords.

Specific Sámi Foods

• Rangifer tarandus (Reindeer): Distinguished from caribou by its domestication; used for meat, milk, and blood.

• Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (Bearberry): Red berries used in preserves and medicines.

• Cicerbita alpina (Alpine Blue-sow-thistle): Distinctive blue flowers with edible stalks.

Celtic Regions

Cultivated Plants

Cereals

• Avena strigosa (Black Oat): Earlier oat variety with greater tolerance for poor soils.

• Hordeum vulgare (Bere Barley): Ancient six-row barley still grown in Orkney and Shetland.

• Triticum dicoccum (Emmer Wheat): Ancient wheat species with hulled grains.

Field Crops

• Brassica rapa (Celtic Turnip Landraces): Important staple before potatoes.

• Vicia faba (Celtic Bean/Broad Bean): Distinctive flat, large beans.

Wild-Gathered Foods

Seaweeds

• Palmaria palmata (Dulse): Red seaweed with leathery texture, rich in protein.

• Chondrus crispus (Carrageen/Irish Moss): Red algae used as thickening agent.

• Porphyra umbilicalis (Laver): Thin, purple-black seaweed, basis for Welsh laverbread.

• Alaria esculenta (Dabberlocks/Wing Kelp): Brown alga with distinctive midrib.

Plants

• Crataegus monogyna (Common Hawthorn): Young spring flowers consumed in salads and used for tea; red berries (haws) harvested after first frost for jellies and wine-making.

• Crithmum maritimum (Samphire): Succulent coastal plant with aromatic leaves.

• Myrrhis odorata (Sweet Cicely): Anise-flavored perennial herb.

• Rumex acetosa (Common Sorrel): Lemony leaves used in soups.

Nuts and Fruits

• Corylus avellana (European Hazelnut): Key wild food harvested in autumn.

• Prunus spinosa (Sloe): Small, tart fruits of the blackthorn used in preserves and alcoholic beverages.

• Rubus fruticosus agg. (Blackberry): Complex of several similar species.

Food Preservation Techniques: Specific Methods and Indicators

Smoking

Cold Smoking

• Temperature range: 20-30°C (68-86°F)

• Duration: From several days to weeks

• Used for: Fish, cheese, meats

• Indicators of proper preservation: Firm texture, amber color, absence of slime

Hot Smoking

• Temperature range: 70-80°C (158-176°F)

• Duration: Hours rather than days

• Used for: Fattier fish like salmon, certain meats

• Wood species: Alder, apple, and juniper commonly used across the North Atlantic

Drying

Wind-Drying (Harðfiskur)

• Optimal conditions: Temperatures between 0-15°C with constant air movement

• Duration: 6-8 weeks

• Species commonly dried: Cod, pollock, haddock

• Indicators of proper drying: Brittle texture, whitish color, slight translucence

Salt-Drying

• Salt proportion: Typically, 1:3 salt-to-fish ratio by weight

• Duration: Initial salting of 3-4 weeks followed by 4-8 weeks of drying

• Traditionally used species: Cod, ling, haddock

Fermentation

Fermented Fish

• Hákarl (Iceland): Fermented Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus)

  • Process: Buried in gravelly soil for 6-12 weeks, then hung for 2-4 months

  • Indicators of readiness: Brown crust, strong ammonia smell

• Surströmming (Sweden): Fermented Baltic herring (Clupea harengus membras)

  • Process: Pre-salted fish fermented for 1-2 months

  • Distinctive trait: Bulging cans due to continued fermentation

Fermented Dairy

• Skyr (Iceland): Made from skim milk inoculated with previous batch

  • Bacterial cultures: Streptococcus thermophilus and Lactobacillus bulgaricus

  • Distinguishing features: Higher protein content than yogurt (11% vs 3-5%)

• Gjetost/Brunost (Norway): Made by caramelizing whey

  • Process: Slow reduction of whey until sugars caramelize

  • Distinguishing features: Brown color, sweet caramel flavor

Pickling

Brine Pickling

• Salt concentration: Typically, 5-8% salt solution

• Duration: From days to months depending on vegetable type

• Common vegetables: Cabbage, turnips, onions

Vinegar Pickling

• Acidity level: Minimum 5% acetic acid

• Preservation indicator: pH below 4.6

• Common additions: Dill, mustard seeds, garlic

Dairy Production: Species-Specific Characteristics

Milk-Producing Animals

Cattle

• Bos taurus (Various landrace cattle):

  • Celtic breeds (Kerry, Dexter): Small-statured with relatively low yield but high butterfat

  • Norse breeds (Norwegian Red, Icelandic): Adapted to harsh conditions with moderate production

  • Fat content: Typically, 3.5-4.5% butterfat

Sheep

• Ovis aries (Indigenous sheep breeds):

  • Milk characteristics: Higher solid content (7-8% fat, 5-6% protein)

  • Production volume: Lower than cattle but with higher nutritional density

  • Seasonal production: Spring through early autumn

Goats

• Capra aegagrus hircus (Nordic and Celtic goat landraces):

  • Milk composition: Lower fat (3-4%) than sheep but higher than modern cow milk

  • Distinctive trait: More easily digested proteins and smaller fat globules

Fermented Beverages: Detailed Production Parameters

Hawthorne Wine

Traditional Ingredients

• Honey varieties: Heather honey (Calluna vulgaris), Forest honey (mixed sources)

• Water ratio: Typically, 1:3 or 1:4 honey-to-water

• Fermentation indicators: Clearing of the liquid, cessation of bubbling

Regional Variations

• Metheglin (Celtic): Mead with herbs (commonly meadowsweet, Filipendula ulmaria)

• Bjórr (Norse): Honey and grain fermentation

• Hydromel (Brythonic Celtic): Lighter, more diluted mead

Fruit-Based Fermentations

Apple Cider

• Malus pumila (European crabapple and early domesticated apples):

  • Distinctive heritage varieties: Crab apples with high tannin and acid content

  • Pressing method: Stone presses with straw filtration

  • Fermentation vessel: Wooden barrels, often oak

Berry Wines

• Sambucus nigra (Elderberry): Highly valued for medicinal properties

• Prunus spinosa (Sloe): Combined with honey for balanced fermentation

• Rubus fruticosus (Blackberry): Often combined with crab apples

Grain-Based Fermentations

Ale Production

• Malting process: Grain germinated until rootlets approximately grain length

• Drying method: Traditionally over wood fires imparting smoky flavor

• Fermentation container: Wooden vats, often with hot stones added for partial mashing

Traditional Additives

• Myrica gale (Bog Myrtle/Sweet Gale): Preservative and flavoring

• Achillea millefolium (Yarrow): Bittering agent predating hops

Ledum palustre (Marsh Labrador Tea): Preservative with distinctive aroma

Honoring Seasonal Rhythms and Preservation Wisdom

The Indigenous food systems of the North Atlantic demonstrate a profound understanding of seasonality that remains relevant today. These cultures recognized that foods harvested during their natural growing seasons contain optimal nutritional profiles and energy patterns. Wild berries gathered at peak ripeness, spring greens harvested during their first tender emergence, and fish caught during seasonal runs all exemplify nature's perfect timing. By aligning our food choices with these natural cycles, we not only access superior nutrition but also support sustainable harvesting practices that allow ecosystems to regenerate and thrive.

Food preservation techniques developed by Norse and Celtic peoples were not merely survival tactics—they were sophisticated methods that often enhanced nutritional availability and digestibility. Fermentation processes increased vitamin content and introduced beneficial probiotics; smoking and drying concentrated nutrients while developing complex flavors; and root cellaring maintained living foods in their natural state. These preservation methods allowed Indigenous communities to maintain nutritional diversity throughout the harsh winter months when fresh foods were scarce. Today, as we seek to reduce our dependence on industrialized food systems, these time-tested preservation techniques offer practical wisdom for extending seasonal abundance while honoring traditional foodways.

As holistic health practitioners, we can draw invaluable lessons from these Indigenous food traditions. By encouraging seasonal eating patterns, teaching traditional preservation methods, and highlighting the nutritional wisdom embedded in these ancestral practices, we help our clients reconnect with food as medicine in its most authentic form. The Indigenous foods of the North Atlantic remind us that true nourishment comes not just from what we eat, but from how that food was grown, gathered, preserved, and prepared—always in relationship with the natural world that sustains us all.

Julie Wardwell, CAP, LMT

Holistic Health Care Practitioner